lithium niobateLiNbO3
PPLN Λ = 6.82 µm · 1064 → 532 nm · 2 px/µm
lithium niobate / 05 Making / 5.1

5.1 Raw materials

L1 Phenomenon

Lithium niobate is one part lithium, one part niobium, three parts oxygen. Niobium is 62.8% of its mass. The niobium comes almost entirely from Brazilian pyrochlore ore; the lithium from brine and spodumene mined mostly for batteries. A 150 mm wafer 0.5 mm thick holds about 26 g of niobium.

From rock to chip: value chain and mass per waferflats ignored
Pyrochlore ore (Nb)
World Nb mine production 112,000 t (2024, 2025e) P
Brazil 104,000 t, about 93% P
→
Brine, spodumene (Li)
World Li production 290,000 t (2025, excl. US) P
Batteries 88% of Li end use P
→
Nb₂O₅
69.904 wt% Nb P
0.899 kg per kg LiNbO₃ (stoichiometric) derived
→
Li₂CO₃
US contract average US$9,000/t (2025) P
0.250 kg per kg LiNbO₃ derived
→
Boule
153 mm × 110 mm at 1–2 mm/h, 5–10 rpm S
Body mass 9.4 kg derived
→
Wafer
4- and 6-inch SAW wafers; 8-inch LN claimed in mass production V
128° Y LN: 350 µm at 4 inch, 500 µm at 6 inch V
→
LNOI
300–900 nm films on 3 to 8 inch V
LN6: 150 mm LN on insulator V
→
Foundry
150 mm TFLN foundry (200 mm wafer shown) S
6- and 8-inch TFLN production partnership V
→
Chip
0.27 dB/cm across a 4-inch DUV wafer P
MZM 1.73 cm, Vπ 1.94 V P
→
Module
Commercial Ti:LN modulators up to 40 GHz V
Wafer
150 mm
m_LN  41.1 gm_Nb  25.8 gNb₂O₅  36.9 gLi₂CO₃  10.3 gCO₂ out   6.1 gderived
World Nb mine output = 4.34 × 109 wafers of this size (derived; Nb share of LiNbO3 62.84 wt%, M = 147.84 g/mol). Charge masses are stoichiometric per finished wafer; kerf, lapping and polishing losses are not included (no source).
150 mmLiNbO₃41.1 gNb inside it25.8 gNb₂O₅ in36.9 gLi₂CO₃ in10.3 g
Wafer diameter
LN mass
41.1 g
Niobium in it
25.8 g
CO₂ released
6.1 g
World Nb output
4.34 × 109 wafers

Square area proportional to mass (100 g = 120 px square). Wafer drawn to scale. Charge masses are stoichiometric per finished wafer; kerf, lapping and polishing losses are not included (no source). derived

Pyrochlore ore (Nb)

World Nb mine production 112,000 t (2024, 2025e) P

Brazil 104,000 t, about 93% P

Brine, spodumene (Li)

World Li production 290,000 t (2025, excl. US) P

Batteries 88% of Li end use P

Nb₂O₅

69.904 wt% Nb P

0.899 kg per kg LiNbO₃ (stoichiometric) derived

Li₂CO₃

US contract average US$9,000/t (2025) P

0.250 kg per kg LiNbO₃ derived

Boule

153 mm × 110 mm at 1–2 mm/h, 5–10 rpm S

Body mass 9.4 kg derived

Wafer

4- and 6-inch SAW wafers; 8-inch LN claimed in mass production V

128° Y LN: 350 µm at 4 inch, 500 µm at 6 inch V

LNOI

300–900 nm films on 3 to 8 inch V

LN6: 150 mm LN on insulator V

Foundry

150 mm TFLN foundry (200 mm wafer shown) S

6- and 8-inch TFLN production partnership V

Chip

0.27 dB/cm across a 4-inch DUV wafer P

MZM 1.73 cm, Vπ 1.94 V P

Module

Commercial Ti:LN modulators up to 40 GHz V

Process viewer stepsopen in the Process viewer
#STEPROUTE
01Weigh and react Li2CO3 + Nb2O5 to a congruent chargeridge
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
                                                
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1.00
cruciblepowder charge
Step
1.00

1/23Weigh and react Li2CO3 + Nb2O5 to a congruent charge (ridge route)

L2 Model and data

Solid-state reaction used to prepare the charge (stoichiometric chemistry; S names Li2CO3 and Nb2O5 as the usual starting materials):

Li2CO3 + Nb2O5 → 2 LiNbO3 + CO2
QuantityValueSource; status
Molar mass LiNbO3147.84 g/molderived IUPAC atomic masses Li 6.94, Nb 92.906, O 15.999
Nb mass fraction62.84 wt%derived
Charge per kg LiNbO3 (stoichiometric)0.250 kg Li2CO3 + 0.899 kg Nb2O5, releasing 0.149 kg CO2derived
Congruent charge48.38 mol% (vendor) and 48.45 mol% (compilation) Li2O, i.e. Li-poor relative to the 50 mol% formulaV, P-comp
World Nb mine production112,000 t Nb (2024 and 2025e); Brazil 104,000 t, about 93%P
World Li production290,000 t Li (2025, excl. US); batteries 88% of end useP
Li2CO3 priceUS contract average US$9,000/t (2025)P
LN or LT use of Nb or Linot broken out by the USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: N/AUSGS, USGS

Mass of LN and Nb in one wafer (density 4647 kg/m3 P-comp; flats ignored; derived):

WaferLN massNb mass
76.2 mm × 0.5 mm10.6 g6.7 g
100 mm × 0.35 mm12.8 g8.0 g
150 mm × 0.5 mm41.1 g25.8 g
200 mm × 0.5 mm73.0 g45.9 g

L3 Details and open points

  • Purity grades of Nb2O5 and Li2CO3 used by crystal growers, and impurity limits (Fe in particular, which sets photorefraction), were not found in a primary source: N/A.
← 05 Making 5.2 Growing the crystal →